Relación de las creencias mágicas con el descuento de recompensas monetarias / Relation of magical beliefs with discounting of monetary rewards

Resumen Se ha sugerido que las creencias mágicas, religiosas y supersticiosas, están relacionadas con las conductas de autocontrol/ impulsividad y de aversión/propensión al riesgo. Estas conductas pueden cuantificarse con la métrica del descuento del valor de una recompensa en función de su demora de entrega o probabilidad de ocurrencia. Así, el propósito del presente trabajo fue averiguar la relación entre las creencias mágicas y el autocontrol/impulsividad y la aversión/propensión al riesgo, utilizando el método del descuento del valor relativo de las recompensas. Ochenta participantes respondieron tres tareas; una de creencias mágicas, otra de descuento temporal y una de descuento probabilístico. El resultado principal del estudio fue que los participantes que mostraron un mayor índice de credulidad en creencias religiosas y supersticiosas mostraron una mayor tasa de descuento temporal y probabilístico que los participantes que tuvieron índices más bajos de credulidad en las mismas creencias. Estos resultados sugieren una relación entre las creencias mágicas y los fenómenos estudiados con la métrica del descuento del valor relativo de recompensas demoradas o probables. Esto es, los datos sugieren que los participantes con un nivel más alto de creencias mágicas también mostraron más conductas impulsivas y de aversión al riesgo que los participantes con niveles más bajos de creencias.

Abstract It has been suggested that magical beliefs like religious and superstitious ones are related with self-controlled/impulsive and risk aversion/proneness behaviors that people show. These behaviors could be quantified with discounting of the value of a reward as a function of its delay of delivery or probability of occurrence, respectively. Therefore, the purpose of this work was to investigate the relationship between magical beliefs and self-controlled/impulsive and risk-aversion/proneness behaviors using the method of discounting the relative value of the rewards. Eighty participants answered three tasks that were a magical beliefs one, a delay discounting one and a probability discounting one. The main finding of the study was that participants who had a higher score in the religious and the superstitious beliefs also had higher discount rates on temporal and probability discounting tasks than the ones who had a lower score in the magical beliefs. These results suggest a relation between magical beliefs and the phenomena studied with the discounting of the subjective value of delayed or probabilistic rewards. That is, these data suggest that the participants who showed a higher level of magical beliefs also showed more impulsive and risk-averse behaviors than the participants who showed lower level of beliefs.

The study of superstition in behavioral sciences: discussing experimental arrangements and theoretical assumptions / O estudo da superstição nas ciências do comportamento: debatendo procedimentos experimentais e concepções teóricas / El estudio de la supertición en ciencias de la conducta: debatiendo procedimientos experimentales y concepciones teoricas

Superstition has been analyzed in behavioral sciences through the use of several terms (e.g., superstition, superstitious behavior, superstitious rules, and superstitious beliefs). This paper argues that the interpretation of the results of studies on superstition depend on: a) the experimental arrangements that are used to study this subject, b) what each of these arrangements enable us to conclude about behavioral relations, and c) assumptions about the role that is attributed to verbal behavior during the construction of superstitions. The role that is attributed to verbal behavior and the experimental arrangements that are chosen are related to underlying concepts of the effects of environmental variables on the control of behavior, namely whether these variables have a direct or indirect (mediational) effect over behavior. Based on these discussions, an alternative course of action is to emphasize existing functional relations between variables as a direct contingency effect, regardless of whether these variables or effects are verbal or nonverbal..

A superstição tem sido analisada nas ciências do comportamento por meio do uso de diversos termos (e.g., superstição, comportamento supersticioso, regras supersticiosas e crenças supersticiosas). Neste artigo, argumenta-se que a diversidade terminológica, bem como na interpretação dos resultados dos estudos sobre superstição se relaciona aos procedimentos experimentais usados para investigar esse tema, ao que cada um desses procedimentos permite concluir sobre relações comportamentais e às concepções sobre o papel atribuído ao comportamento verbal na constituição das superstições. Ainda, argumenta-se que o papel atribuído ao verbal e os procedimentos experimentais escolhidos se baseiam nos pressupostos sobre os efeitos das variáveis ambientais no controle do comportamento, ou seja, se essas variáveis tem um efeito direto ou indireto (mediado) sobre o comportamento. A partir dessas discussões, a ênfase nas relações funcionais existentes entre variáveis ambientais e comportamentais como efeitos diretos das contingências é discutida como um curso de ação alternativa capaz de lidar com os aspectos verbais e não verbais relacionados à superstição.

La superstición ha sido analizada en las ciencias de la conducta por medio del uso de diversos términos (e.g., superstición, conducta supersticiosa, reglas supersticiosas y creencias supersticiosas). En este artículo, se argumenta que la diversidad terminológica, bien como en la interpretación de los resultados de los estudios sobre superstición se relaciona a los procedimientos experimentales usados para investigar esse tema, al que cada uno de estos procedimientos permite concluir sobre relaciones comportamentales y a las concepciones sobre el papel asignado a la conducta verbal en la constitución de las supersticiones. Aún, se argumenta que el papel asignado al verbal y los procedimentos experimentales elegidos se basan en los presupuestos sobre los efectos de las variables ambientales en el control de la conducta, o sea, se essas variables tienen un efecto directo o indirecto (mediado) sobre la conducta. A partir de essas discusiones, la énfasis em las relaciones funcionales existentes entre variables ambientales y comportamentales como un efecto directo de las contingencias es discutida como un curso de acción alternativa capaz de lidiar con los aspectos verbales y no verbales relacionados a la superstición.

Investigação experimental em metacontingências e práticas supersticiosas: um caminho para estudos mais complexos / Experimental investigation in metacontingencies and superstitious practices: a way to more complex studies

A investigação de dinâmicas sociais, mais especificamente os estudos experimentais sobre metacontingências tem se deparado algumas vezes com padrões supersticiosos. Esse estudo foi baseado no modelo Meta, criado para um conjunto de pesquisas e acidentalmente produziu um padrão supersticioso. Não houve a seleção do padrão de contingências entrelaçadas desejado. A consequência cultural produziu um padrão supersticioso nos comportamentos dos participantes; um dado que pode sugerir que os padrões supersticiosos descritos, podem ter dificultado a seleção por metacontingências. A investigação de comportamentos supersticiosos, de regras supersticiosas, bem como os efeitos desses operantes em dinâmicas sociais, pode ser feita, em procedimentos como esse, de forma conjunta, compondo um fenômeno de maior complexidade.

The investigation of social dynamics, specifically experimental studies on metacontingencies has encountered sometimes with patterns superstitious. This study was based on the Meta Model, created for a set of researches and accidentally produced a pattern superstitious. There was no selection of the desired pattern of interlocking contingencies. The consequence produced a cultural pattern superstitious in behavior of the participants, a fact which may suggest that patterns described superstitious, may have hindered the selection by metacontingencies. The investigation of superstitious behaviors, superstitious rules, as well as the effects of these operants in social dynamics, can be done in procedures like this, jointly composing a phenomenon of greater complexity.

A Copa do Mundo é nossa: futebol e comportamento supersticioso / Football and superstitious behavior: regarding the World Cup

O futebol é um dos esportes mais difundidos no mundo. No Brasil, é importante símbolo do aspecto lúdico da cultura popular nacional. É aspecto típico do futebol a imprevisibilidade do resultado, comparativamente a outros esportes coletivos. Com tais características, pode-se dizer que trata se de contexto favorável ao surgimento de comportamentos supersticiosos. Buscou-se verificar se, mesmo em contexto tão profissionalizado quanto o do campeonato mundial realizado no país, superstições são manifestadas, e com quais características. A fonte de informação considerada foi o noticiáriosobre o campeonato. Manifestações supersticiosas foram assunto frequente das matérias jornalísticas e foram classificadas em três modalidades principais: 1) menções à coincidênciaentre algum fato ocorrido em campeonato anterior e fato atual, como indicação de sorte ou azar; 2) uso de estratégia ou amuleto por torcedores para trazer sorte à seleção do país ou azar aos adversários; 3) práticas de jogadores ou times para dar sorte ou evitar azar. A convivência de profissionalismo e preparação técnica com superstições foi objeto de discussão.

Football (or soccer, in the United States) is one of the most popular sports in theworld. In Brazil, it is an important symbol of the playful aspect of national popular culture. It is a typical aspect of football the unpredictability of the outcome, comparative to other collectivesports. With such characteristics, it can be reasoned as a favourable context to bring forth superstitious behaviour. It was attempted to verify if, even in a context as professional as the World Cup being held in the country, superstitions would manifest, and with which characteristics. The source of information considered was the news about the competition. Superstitious manifestations were a frequent subject of the journalistic pieces and were classified into three main modes: 1) mentions to the coincidence between a fact occurred in a former championship and a current fact, as a sign of good or bad luck; 2) the use of strategy or charm by the team supporters to bring luck to their national teams or bad luck to the adversaries; 3) practices of players or teams to bring good luck or avoid misfortune. The coexistence ofprofessionalism and technical preparation with superstitions was object of discussion.

Fighting the Illusion of Control: How to Make Use of Cue Competition and Alternative Explanations / Combatiendo la ilusión de control: cómo hacer uso de la competición de claves y las explicaciones alternativas

Misperceptions of causality are at the heart of superstitious thinking and pseudoscience. The main goal of the present work is to show how our knowledge about the mechanisms involved in causal induction can be used to hinder the development of these beliefs. Available evidence shows that people sometimes perceive causal relationships that do not really exist. We suggest that this might be partly due to their failing to take into account alternative factors that might be playing an important causal role. The present experiment shows that providing accurate and difficult-to-ignore information about other candidate causes can be a good strategy for reducing misattributions of causality, such as illusions of control.

Los errores en la percepción de la causalidad constituyen la base del pensamiento supersticioso y la pseudociencia. El principal objetivo del presente trabajo fue demostrar cómo puede utilizarse nuestro conocimiento sobre los mecanismos involucrados en la inducción causal para impedir o reducir el desarrollo de este tipo de creencias. La evidencia disponible mostró que a veces las personas perciben relaciones causales que en realidad no existen. La propuesta es que esto podría deberse, al menos en parte, a que las personas no suelen tener en cuenta factores alternativos que puedan estar jugando un papel causalmente relevante. El presente experimento demuestra que efectivamente se pueden reducir los errores en la atribución causal, tales como las ilusiones de control, proporcionando a los participantes información precisa y difícil de ignorar sobre otras causas posibles.

Conceptual and Experimental Directions for Analyzing Superstition in the Behavioral Analysis of Culture / Direcciones Conceptuales y Experimentales para el Análisis de la Superstición en el Análisis Conductual de la Cultura

Este trabajo examina las nociones de ilusiones y creencias, discutiendo algunas ventajas que ofrece estudiar tales fenómenos basándose en los conceptos de conducta supersticiosa, superstición y reglas supersticiosas. El trabajo pone de relieve la posibilidad de investigar estas nociones en diferentes niveles de análisis, no sólo a nivel individual, centrándose en el nivel cultural; por otra parte, se presenta el Materialismo Cultural como una propuesta antropológica basada en principios adaptativos, la cual se adecua para tratar estos fenómenos en este nivel, además, discute el Análisis Experimental de las prácticas culturales y señala cómo estos análisis pueden ayudar a entender cómo la gente, en grupo, se comporta como si tuvieran control de su ambiente (cuando, a veces, de hecho, no lo tienen). Este trabajo ofrece una propuesta integradora que facilita el diálogo entre analistas de la conducta y psicólogos sociales y ofrece algunas rutas para un análisis cultural de las ilusiones y las creencias.

This paper examines the notions of illusions and beliefs, discussing some advantages offered by the study of these phenomena based on the concepts of superstitious behavior, superstition and superstitious rules. Among these advantages, the study highlights the possibility of researching these relationships in different levels of analysis, not only at the individual level, focusing on cultural level, this paper presents Cultural Materialism as an anthropological proposal for the consideration of these phenomena on the cultural level and based on adaptive principles, besides it discusses the experimental analysis of cultural practices and points out how they can help to understand how people in groups behave such as they are being effective in the control of the surrounding environment (when, sometimes, in fact, they are not). The paper offers an integrative proposal which makes easier behavior analysts' dialogue with social psychologists and offers some routes from cultural analysis of illusions and beliefs.

Salvar para a eternidade: princípios de ciência médica na época de Montaigne e Cervantes / Save for eternity: principles of medical science in the age of Montaigne and Cervantes

O artigo aborda as artes médicas em uma época em que as terapias se baseavam em conhecimentos empíricos, ditados pela falácia da autoridade de tradições inabaláveis. 'Loucuras' e 'excentricidades' perpetradas pelos artesãos da medicina do Antigo Regime recobram atualidade nos estranhos usos que o novo charlatanismo vem tentando fazer, como por exemplo com as técnicas das células-tronco.

This article approaches the medical arts at a time in which therapies are based on empirical knowledge, dictated by the fallacy of the authority of unshakeable traditions. "Madness" and "eccentricities" perpetuated by Old School medical craftsmen are prevalent today in the strange practices of the new charlatanism, such as trunk cell technologies.

Public Awareness toward Folk Medicine for Epilepsy Treatment in Rural Areas / 대한간질학회지

BACKGROUND: Negative public attitude toward epilepsy is a common phenomenon all over the world and one of the major factors causing social discrimination against people with epilepsy. In general, those with epilepsy have considerable limitations in their interaction with and adaptation to their surroundings, and some of them find social attitudes more devastating than the disorder itself. METHODS: In order to indicate folk medicines known as an epilepsy treatment among Korean rural residents and to deduce the background of the negative attitudes from analysis of the estimated effect of the folk medicine, a survey was conducted in a Korean rural area. RESULTS: Of 713 persons contacted in the survey, 22% of respondents replied that they knew at least one folk medicine as an epilepsy treatment. About 55% of the folk medicines were superstitious or incantational one such as eating the organs of animals or humans, or soup boiled with the branches of a tree struck by lightening, or with a rope used in a suicidal hanging. From the results, we can deduce the fact that the understanding of epilepsy by the Korean respondents base on the supernatural or superstitious thinking that seem to be attributed to our own unique culture. CONCLUSION: In order to ameliorate prejudices against epilepsy and allow epileptic persons to interact with and adapt to their surrounding properly, not only continuous and repetitive educational efforts but also the sympathy of professional and lay societies regarding epilepsy would be needed.